Capture atp pdf download test tile

For example, an image that is captured by a camera may depend on the current aperture, shutter speed, zoom, focus, resolution, and compression settings. Similarly, an image may be captured based on a current mode of the camera e. In accordance with some embodiments of the present invention, images may be captured e.

It will be readily understood that some types of cameras may capture one or more images based on or in response to an indication by a user. For instance, a user may operate a control on a camera e. Some examples, without limitation, include: a camera may capture an image when a user presses the shutter button on the camera, a camera may capture an image based on a self-timer set by a user, a camera may capture an auto-bracketed set of images in response to a user pressing the shutter button, and a camera may capture a sequence of images e.

It will be readily understood that capturing an image manually may include receiving an indication from a user that an image should be captured. Some examples of receiving an indication from a user include, without limitation: a user pressing a shutter button or other shutter control of a camera, thereby manually capturing an image; a user setting a self-timer on a camera e.

In contrast, automatically capturing an image may not involve receiving any indication from a user that an image should be captured. For example, a camera consistent with some embodiments of the present invention may capture an image automatically without the user ever pressing the shutter button on the camera.

Unlike capturing an image manually, capturing an image automatically may include, without limitation, one or more of the following:. According to some embodiments of the present invention, a user may or may not be aware that an image has been captured automatically.

For example, a user's camera may not beep e. Automatically capturing an image quietly and inconspicuously may help to prevent the camera from distracting a user who is in the midst of composing a shot.

For example, a user may find it annoying or distracting to have the camera automatically flash or beep when he is about to capture an important image e. In a second example, capturing images without a user's knowledge may allow the camera to give the user a pleasant surprise when the user reviews his captured images and finds that the camera captured images automatically in addition to the images that he captured manually. In another example, a user may manually capture a plurality of images at a birthday party, but miss capturing an image of the birthday boy opening one of the gifts.

Fortunately, the camera may have automatically captured one or more images of this special event even though the user may not have known at the time. In accordance with at least one embodiment of the present invention, a camera may capture an image automatically while a user is composing a shot. For example, a user may aim the camera at a subject and begin to compose a shot e. While the user is still composing the shot i.

For example, the camera may capture images of scenes that the user aims the camera at, even if the user does not press the shutter button on the camera. Some types of cameras that capture images automatically only store such images temporarily e. The images are typically overwritten soon after they are stored. In some embodiments, an automatically-captured image may be stored in that same type of memory used to store images captured manually by a user.

In one example, an acquired image may be stored in a camera's non-volatile memory. Storing a captured image in non-volatile memory is different from storing an image in volatile memory such as an image buffer or RAM.

For instance, when some types of cameras are turned off, any image that is stored in volatile memory is deleted. In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, an automatically-captured image is stored in non-volatile memory and thus would be preserved even if the camera is turned off.

In another example, an image may be stored in a removable memory e. Removable memory may be larger relative to available non-removable memory of a camera. The availability of removable memory to store automatically-captured images means that the camera will not run out of available memory space as quickly as if it were restricted to storing automatically-captured images in the camera's image buffer or other non-removable memory.

For illustrative purposes only, process will be described as if a camera e. The process , and all other processes described herein unless expressly specified otherwise, may be performed by an imaging device e. Each of these devices is described in detail herein. Further, the process , and all other processes described herein unless expressly specified otherwise, may include steps in addition to those expressly depicted in the Figures or described in the specification, without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention.

Similarly, the steps of process and any other process described herein, unless expressly specified otherwise, may be performed in an order other than depicted in the Figures or described in the specification, as appropriate.

Methods consistent with one or more embodiments of the present invention may include one or more of the following steps of process , each of which is described in further detail herein. In other words, some embodiments of the present invention may be generally described by only one or more of the following steps. Of course, the practice of any of the general steps of process may comprise various other processes or sub-steps, as discussed herein.

In step , a camera determines whether to acquire an image. Various ways of determining to or whether to acquire an image, including based on a determination that one or more conditions are satisfied or on one or more sensors, are discussed herein.

In step , the camera determines whether to store an acquired image e. Various ways of determining to or whether to store an acquired image, including based on one or more ratings associated with the acquired image, are discussed herein. In step , the camera determines how to store an image e. Some embodiments of the present invention comprise at least one of the steps , and and may further comprise a general step of acquiring an image e. Some embodiments of the present invention comprise at least one of the steps , and and may further comprise a general step of storing an acquired image e.

According to one illustrative embodiment consistent with the general process , a camera processor e. An image is received by an image sensor e. In one example, a CCD sensor of a camera may be used to covert incident photons into electrical charges and an A2D analog-to-digital converter may be used to convert these electrical charges into digital information.

Some types of sensors are discussed herein and others will be readily known to those skilled in the art. The received image is temporarily stored in a buffer for processing. In one example, an image may be transferred from a CCD sensor to a captured image buffer e. In one example, one or more images may be stored in the captured image buffer while they are rated by the camera e.

Various examples of rating images are discussed herein. The processor determines to store the image and the image is compressed. For example, a processor on the camera may use a JPEG compression algorithm to generate or otherwise determine a compressed version of the image recorded in step For instance, as discussed herein, an image may be compressed based on how it is rated e. The image is then stored in an image database.

For example, a recorded image may be stored in non-volatile memory, image database e. As discussed herein, various types of information relating to an image e. Various ways of storing an image are discussed herein. Determining whether to acquire an image may comprise one or more of: automatically determining whether to acquire an image, determining whether an image sensor should be activated, determining whether to actuate a shutter on the camera, determining whether to acquire information from an image sensor, determining whether to store information from an image sensor, and determining whether to process information from an image sensor.

There are a variety of different ways in which a camera consistent with one or more embodiments of the present invention may determine whether to capture an image. In some embodiments, a rules-based system may be appropriate. For example, a camera may store or otherwise have access to an acquire condition database, such as the exemplary one depicted in FIG. If, for example, a condition listed in the acquire condition database is true, then the camera may determine to acquire one or more image based on that condition.

In some embodiments, a camera may use a neural network to analyze information received from one or more sensors on the camera e. In some embodiments, one or more images may be acquired based on a condition e. Acquire conditions may be useful in triggering or enabling a variety of different functions, including, without limitation: determining whether to acquire an image, determining when to acquire an image, determining what image to acquire, and determining how to acquire an image.

Conditions and the performance of one or more actions based on a condition are discussed variously herein. Accordingly, it will be understood that acquiring an image based on a condition may include, without limitation: acquiring an image when a condition occurs, in response to a condition, when a condition is true, in response to a condition occurring, after a condition is true, at substantially the same time that a condition occurs, at substantially the same time that a condition becomes true, because of a condition, because a condition occurred, and because a condition is true.

Various examples of factors upon which a condition may be based are discussed herein. According to at least one embodiment, an acquire condition or any other type of condition described herein may comprise a Boolean expression.

The Boolean expression, for example, may reference one or more variables or factors and may include Boolean modifiers and conjunctions e. Some examples of conditions comprising Boolean expressions include, without limitation:. A condition may be based on one or more factors. Examples of factors include, without limitation: factors affecting the occurrence of a condition, factors affecting whether a condition is true, factors causing a condition to occur, and factors causing a condition to become true.

In some embodiments, at least one image may be acquired based on one or more factors. Some general categories of factors include, without limitation: information from sensors, time-related factors, information about images stored in memory, factors relating to a state of the camera, characteristics of a user e. Some examples of factors relating to information from sensors include, without limitation:.

Based on this, the camera may automatically acquire an image, since a user of the camera may be composing a shot and the automatically acquired image may be a helpful addition to any image that may be acquired manually by the user. In another example, if the lens cap of the camera is off and the camera is not moving, this may be an indication that a user is composing a shot with the camera.

In another example, the camera may automatically acquire a plurality of images while a user is composing a shot. In some embodiments, these images may later be combined into a single panoramic image. In another example, the camera may include an accelerometer or other motion sensor that determines when a user lifts the camera e. In another embodiment, the camera may capture images for a predetermined period of time e.

If it is determined that a user is looking through the viewfinder on the camera, this may be a good indication that the user is aiming the camera at an interesting scene. In another example, the camera may have a light sensor located near the camera's viewfinder. In one embodiment, the camera may automatically acquire one or more images based on usage of the viewfinder. This secondary image sensor may be used to determine whether or not a user is holding the camera up to his face.

Conversely, if the secondary image sensor does not see an image of a user's face or eye, then this may be an indication that the user is not looking through the viewfinder and may not be aiming the camera at an interesting scene.

If this microphone senses an increase in the noise level, then this may be a sign that an event is occurring e. Based on this increase in noise level e. Based on this, the camera may automatically acquire an image of the scene. This may be useful in determining if the user is aiming the camera at a scene, and therefore may be a good condition for acquiring an image automatically.

Examples of time-related factors may include, without limitation: the duration of a condition e. For example, the camera may automatically acquire an image if a user has been aiming the camera at the same object for longer than two seconds. In a second example, the camera may automatically acquire one or more images of a scene if a user spends more than ten seconds adjusting settings on the camera before manually capturing an image of the scene.

In another example, a camera may be configured e. For example, the camera may capture three images per second as long as the camera is held still and the user is looking through the viewfinder of the camera.

In some embodiments, such a succession of images may be captured with one or more different settings e. The camera may determine whether to acquire an image based on an image. For example, the camera may acquire a first image and then determine whether to acquire a second image based on this first image.

For example, the camera may capture an image based on one or more of: an image that was captured manually by a user, an image that was acquired automatically by the camera e. In one example, one or more images may be acquired based on a test or temporary image.

For instance, a camera may automatically acquire a test image of a scene and determine whether the scene is interesting or not e. If the scene in the test image appears to be interesting, then the camera may acquire one or more additional images of the scene e.

The camera may then determine whether or not to acquire at least one additional image based on the analysis of the temporary image. One method of acquiring a temporary image and using the temporary image to determine settings on a camera for capturing a second image and suitable for use with one or more embodiments of the present invention is described in U. In another example, a user may manually capture one or more images using a camera.

The camera may then analyze these images e. For example, the camera may determine that one or more images captured manually by a user are poorly exposed, blurred, or otherwise low quality.

Based on this, the camera may determine to acquire at least one additional image e. For example, the camera may automatically acquire an auto-bracketed set of images of a scene based on an image that was captured manually by a user. In another example, a camera may acquire an image based on the quality of a previously acquired image.

For example, the camera may acquire a first image and then determine a rating of the first image. Based on this rating, the camera may determine whether to acquire a second image. In a more detailed example, the camera may acquire an image and rate this image as 3 out of 10 a poorer rating because the image is blurred. Based on this, the camera may acquire a second image. In yet another example, the camera may acquire an image and rate this image as an 8 out of 10 a better rating because the image shows a complex and interesting scene.

Based on this, the camera may acquire additional images of the scene. Some other factors relating to images may include: subjects e. Some examples of factors relating to habits include a user's habits when operating camera e. For example, if a user tends to zoom in and out when composing a shot, then the camera may automatically acquire images while the user operating the zoom in and zoom out controls on the camera.

In another example, if a user tends to spend at least fifteen seconds composing a shot, then the camera may wait ten seconds after the user starts looking through the viewfinder before it acquires any images automatically.

Some factors may relate to a user's preferences for capturing images e. In one example, an acquire condition may be used to adjust the settings of the camera based on one or more of the user's preferences. Some examples of factors relating to information stored in a database include: templates or other information useful in recognizing or processing an image, images stored in the camera's memory e. Some examples of factors relating to the state of the camera include, without limitation: current and past settings e.

For example, the camera may determine to acquire an image automatically if a user zooms in on a subject. In a second example, the camera may determine to acquire a plurality of auto-bracketed images automatically if the user spends more than five seconds adjusting the white balance setting on the camera.

In another example, the camera may acquire fewer images automatically or completely stop acquiring images automatically if the camera is running out of memory. In another example, the camera may stop acquiring images automatically if the image buffer is full. In yet another example, the camera may determine how many images to acquire automatically based on the amount of memory the camera has available. Acquiring fewer images automatically when the camera is low on primary or secondary memory may help the camera to avoid running out of memory.

In another example, the camera may cease capturing images automatically if the camera's batteries begin to run low. In another example, the camera may acquire more images automatically if the camera's batteries are fully charged or if a user indicates that he has additional batteries. For example, in accordance with an example acquire condition, whenever a user holds the camera steady for at least a second, the camera may begin to acquire auto-bracketed images. For instance, the camera may automatically acquire a set of twelve auto-bracketed images while a user is composing a shot for one manually-captured image.

In another example, whenever a user is looking through the camera's viewfinder an acquire condition , the camera may capture images semi-continuously e. For instance, the camera may acquire images at a rate of three images per second as long as a user is looking through the viewfinder of the video camera.

Note that this means the camera could acquire thirty images automatically while a user is looking through the viewfinder for ten seconds. In another example, whenever a user presses a shutter button on the camera a condition , the camera may capture an image of a scene i. In addition, the camera may acquire one or more images automatically based on the image that was captured manually.

For example, if the camera determines that the manually-captured image is under-exposed a condition , then the camera may acquire an auto-bracketed set of images at various different exposure settings, thereby increasing the likelihood that the user captures at least one well-exposed image of the scene.

In some embodiments of the present invention, a camera may not perform a step of determining whether to acquire an image. For example, the camera may acquire images continuously or semi-continuously e.

The camera may then determine whether or not to store the images. As discussed above with respect to general steps and , a device consistent with the present invention may make various determinations relating to the storing of an image that may have been acquired automatically.

A camera may determine whether to store an image step A camera may determine how to store an image step For example, a camera may determine whether an image should be compressed, and if so, how much the image should be compressed.

In some embodiments, a camera may determine where e. Such conditions may be based on one or more factors, such as those factors above with respect to acquire conditions. If a user is holding the camera still and horizontal while the image is acquired a condition , then the image may be stored. This may be done, for example, by evaluating the quality of the image or one or more characteristics of the image.

For example, the camera may evaluate an image e. If the image is high quality e. If the image is low quality e. According to some embodiments, determining the quality of an image may include one or more of: determining one or more characteristics of the image, and determining a rating of the image. Some examples of characteristics of an image that may be indicative of the quality of an image include, without limitation:. In a second example, the camera may determine whether the background of the image is in focus.

Images that are sharp and in focus may be determined to be of higher quality e. Images that are exposed correctly may be considered higher quality, whereas images that are over-exposed or under-exposed may be deemed to be of lower quality. In a second example, the camera may determine the exposure of specific portions of an image.

For example, the quality of an image may depend on whether a person's face in an image is correctly exposed. Images that have more colors or brighter colors may be more appealing to people and therefore may be considered to be higher quality. Images what are monotone, have too much contrast, or are color-saturated may be considered to be lower quality. In a second example, an image of a person that does not include the person's feet may be considered to be lower quality than an image that does include the person's feet.

Depending on the subject matter of an image e. Certain subjects may be more interesting or appealing to a user than other subjects, so images of these subjects may be considered to be of high quality.

In a second example, images of the birthday girl at a birthday party may be considered to be higher quality i.

Note that an image that is blurred or poorly exposed may be considered to be a good quality image if it captures an important subject e. For example, the camera may determine what landscape, scenery, building, or other objects are in the background of an image. Images in which the background of an image is visually appealing may be considered to be of higher quality. The camera may then save or discard an image based on the subject of the image e.

In a second example, the camera may determine whether anybody blinked in an image of a group of people. If somebody blinked i. Based on this, the camera may determine images that are slightly blurred to be of higher quality than images that are very sharp. In a second example, a user may prefer that images of people have warmer colors while images of landscapes have cooler colors.

Based on this preference, the camera may determine the quality of an image based on the subject matter of the image i. In one example, the camera may determine a user's preferences based on images that the user captures using the camera. In a second example, the camera may ask a user one or more questions about his preferences e.

Images that have a large amount of digitization or quantization noise may be considered to be lower quality than images than have less noise or better digitization or quantization.

For example, an image that is meta-tagged with information about the subject of the image e. If the acquired image is nearly identical to a plurality of images already stored in the camera's memory, then the camera may consider the acquired image to be lower quality than an image that is unique and different, since a user would likely be uninterested in capturing multiple images that are nearly identical to each other.

In some embodiments, determining the quality of an image may include determining one or more ratings for the image. Ratings may be determined based on a variety of different factors, including characteristics of an image that relate to the quality of an image see above. For example, images captured by the camera may be rated on a scale of 0 to 10, with 0 corresponding to an image that should definitely be deleted and 10 corresponding to an image that should definitely be stored.

Images with other ratings may be compressed based on their ratings. For example, an image that is rated a 4 may be compressed more than an image that is rated a 6. In one embodiment, a camera may use a rating function to determine a rating for an image. A rating function may be a mathematical formula, equation, function, or process that may be used to determine a rating of an image. A rating function may reference one or more variables i. Some examples of rating functions include:.

In some embodiments, an image may be assigned a plurality of ratings. Which of the following retains the information it's storing when the system power is turned off? Submit ». Get answers from your peers along with millions of IT pros who visit Spiceworks. Is this an emerging issue that anyone else is seeing?

Has anyone experienced similar nightmares with 6. Is there a previous firmware release that works better than this? Update: It's happening with ZIP files too, and probably a good number of others. Edited May 23, at UTC. I submitted a case but they have not called back yet Thanks Bryan. Verify your account to enable IT peers to see that you are a professional.

Bryan Pimiento. Bryan May 24, at UTC. Huh, that's interesting. If you don't mind my asking: What SonicWall model do you have? If you dont see any interesting for you use our search form on bottom. Write a reaction for the process that is the reverse of Model 1. Atp the free energy carrier pogil answers. Sporting goods store might accept take bill when you buy. Therefore the hydrolysis of ATP is exergonic and provides free energy for many processes needed to sustain life.

AoPS is training the intellectual leaders of the next generation by preparing motivated students for college and career success. Read Online heath chemistry learning guide Doc. This is incorrect because the energy is released when water molecules are added to the ends of ADP and phosphate pieces.

Atp the free energy carrier pogil answer Adenosine triphosphate — Wikipedia. And the book is really useful and certainly adds to our knowledge after reading. A water plant is also selected because Water plants are adapted to photosynthesis under the low light intensity in water where terrestrial plants cannot easily photosynthesize. This experiment can also be used to investigate the factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis: 1 Carbon IV oxide concentration : Carry out the experiment using different amounts of dissolved sodium hydrogen carbonate e.

Illuminate the plant and vary the distance between the set up and the light source While recording the time it takes for the gas jar to fill or counting the number of bubbles peer unit time.

Experiments on factors necessary for photosynthesis Light Requirements Methylated spirit, iodine solution, water, white tile, droppers, beaker, source of heat, boiling tube, light proof material e.

Procedure Cover two or more leaves of a potted plant with a light proof material. Place the plant in a dark place for 48 hours keeping the plant in the dark for 48 hours is to ensure that all the starch in it is used up.

This makes the leaves ideal for investigating whether starch would form in the experimental period. This is called destarching. Transfer the potted plant to light for 5 hours. Detach and uncover the leaves and immediately test for starch in one of the covered leaves and one that was not covered. Chlorophyll For this experiment, a variegated leaf is required. This is a leaf in which some patches lack chlorophyll. These patches could be yellow.

They lack chlorophyll hence photosynthesis does not take place in them. Procedure Detarch or remove variegated leaf that has been exposed to light for at least three hours. Draw a large diagram of the leaf to show the distribution of the chlorophyll Test the leaf for starch and record observations.

Chemicals Of Life These are chemical compounds that constitute the living organisms. Biochemistry is the branch of biology that deals with the study of the chemicals of life and their reactions. Chemicals of life include carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. Carbohydrates Are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio of l. They have a general formula CH2O n where n represents the number of carbon atoms. Carbohydrates are grouped into three categories: Monosaccharides These are the simplest carbohydrates.

They include glucose, fructose, galactose. Their general formula is C6H12O6. Note: Most fruits are sweet tasting because they contain a lot of monosaccharides. Monosaccharide units can be combined to form complex carbohydrate molecules through a process known as condensation. Water molecules are produced in the process.

Functions They are the chief respiratory substrate. They are broken down to release energy in the body. They are condensed to form complex important carbohydrates. Disaccharides These are complex sugars formeed by linking two monosaccharide units through condensation. The bond that holds two monosaccharide units is called glycosidic bond. Examples of disaccharides include: Maltose-common in germinating seeds Sucrose-fruits and sugar cane. Sucrose is the form in which carbohydrates are transported in plants Lactose- found in milk Properties of Disaccharides They are sweet tasting They are crystallizable They are water soluble While they are non reducing sugars, some such as maltose is sugar reducing and is known as a complex reducing sugar.

They can be broken down into their constituent monosaccharide units through hydrolysis. Hydrolysis is the process through which complex molecules are broken down in the presence of water molecules.

In living systems, hydrolysis is carried out by enzymes. However, in the laboratory, hydrolysis can be carried out by boiling the disaccharide in dilute aid such as hydrochloric acid. Functions They are hydrolyzed into monosaccharides and respired on to yield energy They are the form in which carbohydrates are transported in plants due to their soluble and inert nature.

Polysaccharides These are formed through linking of numerous monosacchride units through condensation. Their general formula is C6H10O5 ,, where n is a very large number. Properties of polysaccharides They are non sweet They do not dissolve in water They are non crystalline They are non-reducing sugars Examples of polysaccharides a Starch - Made by linking numerous glucose molecules.

It is a form in which carbohydrates are stored in plants. It is broken down to glucose in animals when blood glucose falls. It is a component of the cell wall d Chitin - A structural carbohydrate found in cell wall of fungi and arthropod exoskeletons Functions of polysaccharides They are storage carbohydrates; their insolubility and inertness makes them ideal for storing carbohydrates. They are structural carbohydrates e.

However, they contain lesser oxygen but higher hydrogen compared to carbohydrates. Building units for lipids are fatty acids and glycerol. To synthesize a molecule of lipid, three fatty acids and a glycerol molecule are linked through a condensation reaction. There is one type of glycerol but numerous fatty acids There are different types of fatty acids.

The property of a lipid therefore depends on the type of fatty acids that link up with the glycerol. There are complex lipids such as phospholipids, steroids, waxes and cholesterol. These also form through condensation. Properties of lipids Fats easily change to oil when heated while oils easily solidify when cooled. They are insoluble in water but readily dissolve in organic solvents such as chloroform to form emulsions They are inert hence can be stored in tissues of organisms.

Functions They are a source of energy when oxidized. They yield more energy compared to carbohydrates when oxidized per unit weight. However, they are less preferred as source of energy because they require a lot of oxygen to oxidize. In addition, they are insoluble hence not easy to transport to respiratory sites. They are a source of metabolic water. When oxidized, they yield a lot of metabolic water. This explains why some desert animals such as camels store large quantities of fat in their bodies.

Lipids offer protection to internal organs as they are deposited around them to act as shock absorbers. Lipids provide heat insulation when stored underneath the skin as they are poor conductors of heat hence do not conduct heat away from the body.

Organisms in cold areas tend to be short and plump as they have fatter fat adipose. Lipids form structural compounds for instance phospholipids in cell membrane.

Complex lipids such as waxes in leaves help minimize water loss through transpiration. Some lipids mediate communication between cells Proteins These are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. In addition, they also contain nitrogen and sometimes phosphorous or sulphur or both.

Some proteins molecules contain other elements. In particular, haemoglobin contains iron. Proteins are made up of amino acids.

There are about twenty known amino acids. Amino acids are of two kinds: a Essential - These are those amino acids that cannot be synthesized by the body systems hence have to be supplied in the diet. An amino acid has an amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen atom and an alkyl, R group. Amino acids differ from each other by the alkyl group. Proteins are of two kinds: a First class proteins - Contain all essential amino acids b Second class proteins - Proteins lack one or more essential amino acids Protein synthesis Two amino acids combine through a condensation process to form a dipeptide molecule Several amino acids link up to form a polypeptide chain.

Proteins are made up of long chain polypeptides. Properties of a protein depend on the type of amino acids present in its chain and the sequence in which the amino acids link up in the polypeptide chain.

Properties of Proteins They dissolve in Water to form colloidal suspensions in which the particles remain suspended in water. Strong acids, bases, detergents and organic solvents also denature proteins. They are amphoten'c- possess both basic and basic properties. This property enables them to combine with other non protein substances to form conjugated proteins such as: Mucus- Protein plus carbohydrate Haemoglobin- Protein plus iron Functions of proteins a They are structural compounds of the body.

Cell membrane is protein in nature. Hair, nails and hooves are made up of protein keratin. Hormones are chemical messengers while enzymes regulate the speed of metabolic reactions. Haemoglobin molecule plays a crucial role in transportation of respiratory gases.

Enzymes What are enzymes? Are organic catalysts that are protein in nature and regulate the rate of metabolic reactions. They speed up or slow down the rate of metabolic reactions but to not get used up in the process. Types of enzymes a Extracellular : Are produced within the cells but used outside the cells e. Importance of Enzymes They speed up the rate of chemical reactions that would otherwise be too slow to support life. Digestive enzymes breakdown complex food substances into simple foods that can be utilized by the cells.

Some metabolic enzymes such as catalase play a vital role in detoxification making poisonous substances less harmful. Enzyme nomenclature Two systems of naming enzymes have been adopted. Trivial naming This is where an enzyme is named by the scientist who discovered it.

In trivial naming all enzyme names end in prefix —in. Examples Pepsin Theodor Schwann, German physiologist Ptyalin Anselme Payen, a French chemist- Substrates Amylose starch The reaction is then catalyzed and the end products released. The enzyme is free to bind with another substrate molecule.

The enzymes can be used again and again. Properties of Enzymes They are protein in nature; hence affected by temperature and pH. They are substrate specific e. They mostly take part in reversible reactions. They regulate the rate of metabolic activities but are not used up.

Factors affecting enzyme activity Temperature. Substrate Concentration. Enzyme Concentration. Enzyme co-factors and co-enzymes; Fe, Mg, Zn, Cu ions. Enzyme inhibitors. There are few collisions leading to low enzyme activity. As temperature increases, the kinetic energy of the enzyme and substrate molecules increases leading to increased collisions hence increase in enzyme activity. This is because enzymes get denatured and their active sites get destroyed.

Some enzymes work best under alkaline conditions e. Some also work better under acidic conditions e. However, most intracellular enzymes work better under neutral conditions. Altering the pH conditions would affect enzyme activity. For instance, sucrase enzymes can only breakdown sucrose.

Increase in substrate concentration increases the rate of enzyme activity since more active sites of the enzymes will be occupied and there will also be an increase in enzyme- substrate collisions leading to increased reaction. The reaction increases up to a point at which it becomes constant.

At this point, all active sites are utilized. The enzymes become the limiting factor of reaction. Increasing enzyme concentration would increase the rate of enzyme activity. At low enzyme concentration, rate of enzyme activity is low because there are fewer sites and also fewer enzyme-substrate collisions that would lead to reactions.

Increasing enzyme concentration increases rate of enzyme activity since there will be an increase in number of active sites and enzyme-substrate collisions. At optimum enzyme concentration, substrate concentration is the limiting factor. Increasing substrate concentration increases the rate of reaction. Without them, most enzymes would not function properly. Co- factors include mineral ions like iron, magnesium, copper, manganese, zinc as well as vitamins.

They are used again and again since like enzymes, they do not get used up during the reactions. Some enzymes will not function without them. Most co-enzymes are derivatives of vitamins.

They are of two types: 1. Competitive 2. Non- competitive Competitive inhibitors These are chemical substances which are structural analogs of the substrates i.

They bind with the enzymes and do not disentangle easily they stay in the enzyme active site for a long time thereby slowing down the rate of enzyme activity.

The reaction can be increased by increasing the substrate concentration. Non competitive inhibitors These are inhibitors that do not resemble the substrate molecules but they combine with the enzyme at any site other the active site and alter the structure of the active site of the enzyme.

The normal substrate, therefore, fails to bind to the active site leading to decreased rate of reaction.

Note that these substances do not compete for the active sites of the enzymes. The enzymes are destroyed permanently hence the effect cannot be reversed. Examples of non competitive inhibitors Heavy metals such as lead, mercury, silver , Cyanide, organophosphates such as malathion. Heterotrophism This is a mode of nutrition in which organisms take in already manufactured complex food substances such as carbohydrates, proteins and lipids. Heterotrophs are organisms that feed on already manufactured food substances.

These substances are broken down in the bodies of the Heterotrophs into simple soluble food substances that can be absorbed and be utilized by the cells. Modes of Heterotrophism There are four main heterotrophic modes on nutrition: Holozoic- Where organisms ingest, digest and assimilate solid complex food substances.

Saprophytism — Where organisms feed on dead decaying matter causing decomposition. Parasitism- a feeding association in which one organism parasite feeds on or obtain nutrients on another organism, the host. The parasite benefits but the host does not. Some of the parasites cause diseases to the hosts and damage their tissues thereby weakening them.

Dentition Large animals depend on complex manufactured food substances. These food substances once ingested must be broken down to simpler forms that can be utilized by the cells.

The breakdown is both physical and chemical. Most of the large animals have teeth to enhance physical breakdown of the complex food substances. Dentition refers to the description of types of teeth, their arrangement and specialization.

Types of Dentition Homodont dentition: Teeth arrangement and description where an organism has teeth of the same size and shape. Fishes and birds have homodont dentition. Heterodont dentition: where an organism has teeth of different sizes and shapes that is incisors, canines, premolars and molars. Heterodont dentition is common with mammals and reptiles. They have one root. Canines Are conical teeth with sharp pointed edges modified for seizing and tearing prey among carnivores.

They have one root b. Premolar and molar They have cusps on their surface to suit their grinding action. Premolars have two roots. Molars have either two or three roots. Classes of Holozoic Heterotrophs Holozoic heterotrophs are classified according to the type of food they consume.

These are: a Herbivores: heterotrophs that exclusively feed on vegetation. Dentition of heterotrophs is based on the kind of food they consume. Dental Formula This is the of the number, type and position of teeth in the jaws of animals Number of teeth recorded represents half the total teeth in the upper and lower jaws.

The teeth names are abbreviated as a i -incisors. An animal was found to have no incisors and canines on the upper jaw. It had six premolars and four molars on the upper jaw. On the lower jaw, it had eight incisors, no canines, six premolars and six molars. Herbivores Most do not have upper incisors. Instead they have a homy pad against which grass is pressed and cut by the lower incisors. They have a long tongue that assists in the cutting and moving food.

They have a gap in the lower jaw separating canines from premolars known as diastema which allows the tongue to manipulate food. Herbivore teeth have open enamel which allows for continuous growth to replace worn out surfaces due to grinding. Their incisors are wedge shaped to cut grass and vegetation together with the horny pad The jaws have movable joints to allow the sideways movement of lower jaw to facilitate grinding of grass.

Carnivores Their incisors are chisel shaped and closely fitting to seize the prey. Their canines are long, conical and curved to hold, kill and tear the prey.

Their jaws are attached to powerful muscles that move the jaws up and down Carnivores are adapted to fast running by possessing well developed leg muscles. Dental Diseases a Dental Carries Caused by lack of hard food, too much sweet or sugary food, lack of calcium in diet, lack of vitamin D, lack of cleaning teeth and general ill-health. The bacteria in the mouth break down the sugars to form energy and organic acids. The acids corrode the enamel. Common in adults than children.

Are of two types: a Gingivitis - Characterized by reddening of gums, bleeding and pus in the gums. Dental Hygiene Proper teeth care requires: Regular cleaning or brushing teeth after every meal Avoid eating too much sugary foods. Eating hard foods e. Eating diet rich in calcium, phosphate and vitamins A, C and D. Teeth should be used for their correct purpose.

Regularly visit the dentist if necessary. Digestion The process through which complex food substances is broken down physically and chemically into simpler food substances that can be absorbed by body cells. However, small molecules like those of vitamins, mineral salts and water are directly absorbed into the bloodstream without undergoing digestion.

Digestion occurs in the mouth, stomach, duodenum and ileum. There are glands also associated to the digestive system. These include the pancreas, gall bladder, salivary glands.

Digestion in the mouth At the mouth both physical and chemical digestion takes place. The food is mechanically broken down by the teeth through grinding and chewing. This process is called mastication. Mastication reduces the food into small size to increase the surface area for enzymatic action. The tongue helps in manipulation of the food as it mixes the food with the saliva secreted from the salivary glands.

The salivary glands are: a Sublingual salivary gland; beneath the tongue b Sub mandibular gland: under the jaw c Parotid gland: Found in the cheeks in front of the ears. All the glands have ducts through which saliva is directed to the mouth. The tongue also rolls the food into small round masses called boluses. The boluses are then pushed to the back of the mouth to initiate the swallowing process. The boluses are then moved to the stomach via oesophagus.